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C00015 00004	\liststart{9.}
C00020 00005	\sect Holding the violin
C00025 00006
C00031 00007	In the matter of the left hand, the theorist-musicians are in
C00039 00008	\sect Left hand position on the fingerboard
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C00056 00011	Corrette's treatise, which is for the more advanced student includes actual
C00064 00012	Mozart's treatment of shifting is disappointingly perfunctory.  He
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C00086 00015	Monteclaire adds his plea to that of Mersenne stating,
C00090 00016	Geminiani gives a detailed description of the bowing motion:
C00095 00017	Mozart takes bowing variety and control of tone production one step
C00097 00018	Tartini covers various aspects of bowing.  In tone production
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\chap.2.On Playing the Violin: A Study of selected Sources.2.

\sect Introduction.
The sources used in this chapter cover a period of over a century
(Mersenne, 1636 - L'Abb\'e le fils, 1761).  They were selected on the
basis of the type of information they contained on the violin, interest being
centered on those which treat elements of practice - 
holding the violin and bow, playing in positions, and instruction in
ornamentation (the last-named will be dealt with in more detail in a later chapter)
The popularity of the instrument soared during this very period, as is evidenced by
the relatively large number of violin tutors that appeared. Its comparatively 
powerful and piercing tone
elevated it above other instruments  as one of the main proponents of the emerging
soloistic style.
As interest shifted from ensemble to solo compositions, treatment of the violin
progressed from being confined to a section in an encyclopedic work (in the
17\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century), to meriting attention in treatises and
tutors dealing exclusively with the instrument's distinctive capabilities 
and problems (in the 
18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} century)
The earliest of these specialized tutors were elementary in nature and aimed at 
amateurs - people who knew
very little about music, much less the violin. Gradually, as the 
18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} century)
progressed, these treatises increasingly reflected the more advanced technique of the
violin virtuosi.

The following is a chronological annotated list of the sources:
\def\liststart#1{\noindent \hangindent 15 pt\hbox to 15 pt{#1}}
\liststart{1.}
Mersenne, Marin.  {\it Harmonie Universelle} (Paris: Chez Sebastien Cramoisy, 1636),
v.3 {\it Trait\'e des instruments}, ``Livre quatriesme des instrumens a chordes'', 
pp.177-190: translation by Roger E. Chapman, {\it Harmonie Universelle the books on
instruments} (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1957), ``Fourth book of string
instruments'', pp.231-249.
This contains mostly general information on the violin family, the structure, and 
the tunings of its various members.  There are no instructions on holding 
instruments or
bows.  Included is information on what notes are played with which fingers of
the left hand.  Mersenne recommends using lute ornaments and even includes a sample 
composition in unornamented and ornamented form.

\liststart{2.}
Falck, Georg.  {\it Idea boni cantoris} (N\" urnberg: Wolffgang Moritz Endter, 1688),
``Anleitung zum Violin-Streichen/ f\" ur die Incipienter'', pp.186-193.
This is a very general treatment of playing the violin.  Falck pays 
unusual attention to tuning a violin to a harpsichord.  
He includes elementary instructions on holding the violin and bow and demonstrates
some elementary bowings. He seems to follow the French style of playing the
instrument. The chapter describes a placement of the left hand 
corresponding to 7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
position, but musical examples never leave first position.

\liststart{3.}
Muffat, Georg.  {\it Florilegium secundum}, 1698.  This is mainly collection of
French-style dances with extensive instructions on bowing. It contains good 
descriptions (using Muffat's own symbols) for French agr\'ements.  There is no
information on holding the instrument or bow.

\liststart{4.}
Mont\'eclaire, Michel Pignolet de.  {\it M\'ethode facile pour aprendre \`a
jo\" uer du violon} (Paris: chez l'Auteur, 1711-12)  This is a very elementary 
tutor. It contains no 
position playing (only the extension of the 4\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
finger).  It also furnishes
general musical information (different note shapes, clef signs, durations
of rests, beats per measure, etc.)

\liststart{5.}
Dupont, Pierre.  {\it Principes du Violon} (Paris: chez l'auteur, 1718)  This is a 
short tutor
in dialogue form, containing no information on holding violin or bow.
It includes two rather strange engravings of ``positions'' of the left hand (see fig.
12)
In both, the thumb points away from the violinist alongside the scroll.
Verbal descriptions of the notes each finger can play in each of his two ``positions''
are given.  Dupont also provides exercises with bowings marked - again with lengthy 
explanations. Like Mont\'eclaire, he includes
some general musical information.  He refers reader to his {\it Principes
de Musique} for information on ornamentation and the Italian style of
playing.

\liststart{6.}
Prelleur, Peter.  {\it The Modern Music Master} (London: the Printing-Office in Bow 
Church-Yard, 1731), (the 5\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} bound tutor) This violin tutor is 
also elementary.
It gives a very odd method of tuning the instrument using unisons rather than
fifths.  Prelleur
suggests marking the fingerboard as an aid to playing in tune, and gives detailed
charts to show where the different notes should be stopped.  In addition, he
describes the locations of the notes on the fingerboard in inches and fractions of
inches. This treatise seems to have been pirated from a 1695 tutor
entitled {\it Nolens volens or You shall learn to play the violin whether you will
or no}. Prelleur's format and most of his wording is identical to that of the
earlier work.
This particular treatise was apparently quite popular, as it was reprinted
several times and appeared with different titles.\footnote{Among these are: 
{\it The Self=Instructer [sic]
on the Violin...} (London: Printed for I. Miller and I. Walsh, 1695); {\it The First, 
Second and Third Books of the Self=Instructor on the Violin...} 
(London: Sould [sic]
by J. Walsh, 16-- ; 2\raise 3 pt\hbox{nd}
title page London: Printed for & Sould [sic] by I. Hare, 1700);
{\it The Compleat Tutor for the Violin} (London: C. & S. Thompson, 1765?)}

\liststart{7.}
Crome, Robert.  {\it The Fiddle new Model'd or a useful Introduction for the
Violin} (London: J. Tyther, 174?)  This treatise is similar in nature to that of
Prelleur - a bit retrospective for its conjectured date of 1740. The treatise
consists mostly of diagrams of the violin fingerboard demonstrating where to 
place the fingers to play his one simple minuet tune in different keys.
He also includes a brief section on time signatures, note and rest
values, clefs, and simple bowing combinations.

\liststart{8.}
Corrette, Michel, {\it L'\'Ecole d'Orph\'ee} (Paris :Chez L'Auteur, 1738)  
This is the first
treatise that shows the evidence of the developing technique. It is divided into
two parts - one for beginners, and one for more advanced students.  Interestingly,
the division also falls along national stylistic lines.  The more 
elementary section treats playing in the French style, and includes many dances
to be played as duets.  The Italian section includes solo work
(sonatas, concerti), passaggi, position playing, arpeggios, double stops, and 
scordatura.  Corrette also differentiates between Italian and French bow grips.

\liststart{9.}
Geminiani, Francesco, {\it The Art of Playing on the Violin}, London, 1751;
facs. ed. by D. Boyden, Oxford University press.  A valuable tutor for more advanced
violin students, it is somewhat uneven.  For example, Geminiani gives a detailed 
description of the 
movement of bow and bow arm, but not much information on the left hand.  The text
found at the beginning explains the musical examples and exercises that follow.
Also included, is a fairly large section on the use of ornaments.  The most valuable 
information is contained, not in the text, but in the comprehensive, carefully
thought out exercises.

\liststart{10.}
Tartini, Giuseppe. {\it Trait\'e des Agr\'ements de la Musique}, 1752-4;  Italian
version translated and edited by Erwin Jacobi.  This is a comprehensive and
systematic
treatment of ornamentation of violin music, but is not a tutor for the instrument.
The Italian version contains some information on holding the bow and gives some
bowing suggestions.  A 1760 letter (also included in the Jacobi edition of the
{\it Trait\'e}) from Tartini to the professional violinist, Maddelena Lombardini,
contains some hastily written instructions for the violin, mostly
concerned with bow control.

\liststart{11.}
Mozart, Leopold.  {\it Versuch einer gr\"undlichen Violinschule}, Augsburg,
1756.  This is a comprehensive work, but a bit confusing as to its expected 
audience.  Mozart introduces his book
with an esoteric reconstruction of music history and a description of the string 
family.  His first chaper is a very elementary section on musical notes, clefs, and
time signatures.  The second chapter is on holding the violin and bow, the third is 
on major and minor scales.  He then moves on to more sophisticated techniques -
control of the tone production, complicated bowings, position playing, and 
ornamentation. He also includes a chapter on musical good taste.

\liststart{12.}
L'Abb\'e le fils (J.-B. Saint Sevin).  {\it Principes du violon}, Paris, 1761.
This is also a tutor for more advanced violinists. It starts with the basics - 
holding the violin and bow, and
fingering individual notes, but moves on very quickly to playing
pieces and scales up to the 7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
position. He includes a 4 page section on 
agr\'ements,
how to play them, and where they are usually used.  There are also sections on
double stops, arpeggios, and harmonics (including a minuet totally in harmonics).
Comprehensive exercises, dances, preludes, and variations are provided as drills 
for the techniques described in the text.

It is, then, from these sources that a
chronology in the development of violin technique during the 17\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} and 18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
centuries will be reconstructed.
The central concerns of the violinists during that period were: holding the
violin, positioning the left hand, and manipulating the bow.  Their technical
experiments showed the advantages of some methods over others,
leading to an eventual standardization in the treatment of these concerns.
\sect Holding the violin
The majority of 18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} century sources increasingly favor placing the violin against 
the neck and holding it securely by the chin as the century progresses.
Georg Falck instructs the student to 
set the violin ``on the left breast [tilted] a little downward towards
the right.''\footnote{``g$\ldots$ dass er die Violin auf der lincken Brust ansetze
doch also dass sie ein wenig gegen der Rechten abwerts sehe.''
Falck, {\it Idea}, p. 190.}
Michel Monteclair, however, states,
\quote
{To hold [the violin] firmly so that it will not move at all, it is 
necessary to
press the button that holds the strings well against the neck under
the left cheek.\!
\footnote{``Pour le tenir ferme et qu'il ne vacile point
il faut bien apuier le bouton qui tient les cordes contre le Col
sous la jo\"ue gauche.'' Monteclaire, Michel Pignolet de, {\it  M\'ethode
facile pour aprendre \`a jo\"uer du violon} (Paris: chez l'Auteur vis
\`a vis le Palais Royal, 1711-1712), p.2.}}

David Boyden, feels that the above implies the violin is held securely by 
the left cheek.\footnote{Boyden, {\it History}, p.368.}

Michel Corrette tells his students that it is necessary to put the chin on 
the violin when shifting, because it gives more freedom to the left
hand - especially when returning to first position.
\footnote{``Il faut necessairent, poser le menton sur le Violon quand on
veut d\'emancher, cela donne toutte libert\'e \`a la main gauche,
principalement quand il faut revenir \`a la position ordinaire.''
Corrette, Michel,  {\it L'\'Ecole d'Orph\'ee suivi de l'art de se
perfectionner dans le Violon} (Paris: chez Mlle Castagnery, 1738),  p.7.} 

Robert Crome gives similar instructions, ``g$\ldots$ let the back part rest on your
left Breast [shoulder?], the best way is to stay it with your Chin, that it
remain steady g$\ldots$ ''\footnote{Crome, Robert, {\it The Fiddle new Model'd or a 
useful Introduction for the Violin} (London: J. Tyther, 174-?), p.34-5.}

Virtuoso Francesco Geminiani's instructions are,
\quote
{The violin must be rested just below the collarbone, turning the
right hand side of the violin a little downwards, so that there
may be no necessity of raising the bow very high when the fourth
string is to be struck g$\ldots$ Observe also that the head of the violin
must be nearly horizontal with that Part which rests against the
Breast that the hand may be shifted with facility and without
any danger of dropping the instrument.\footnote{Geminiani, Francesco.
{\it The Art of Playing on the Violin}, (London: 1751), p.1-2.}}

Leopold Mozart describes two ways of holding the violin.  The first
is chest high, slanting down so that the bow strokes are more vertical
than horizontal.  This is not recommended since the lack of sufficient
support for the violin makes position playing inconvenient. 
\footnote{``Die erste Art die Violin zu halten, hat etwas angenehmes und sehr
gelassenes. Es wird n\" amlich die Geige ganz ungezwungen an der H\" ohe
der Brust seitw\" arts, und so gehalten: dass die Striche des Bogens mehr 
in die H\" ohe als nach der Seite gehen.  Diese Stellung ist ohne Zweifel
in den Augen der Zuseher ungezwungen und angenehm;  vor den Spielenden
aber etwas schwer und ungelegen:  weil, bey schneller Bewegung der Hand 
in die H\" ohe, die Geige keinen Halt hat, folglich nothwendig entfallen
muss;  wenn nicht durch eine lange Uebung der Vortheil, selbe zwischen 
dem Daume und Zeigefinger zuhalten, eroberet wird.''}
The description of the second way suggests that the violin is held in
place by the chin:

\quote
{The violin is placed against the neck so that it lies somewhat in
front of the shoulder, and the side on which the E (thinnest) string
lies comes under the chin, whereby the violin remains unmoved
in its place even during the strongest movements of the ascending and
descending hand.\footnote{g$\ldots$ die Violin so an den Hals gestzet, dass sie am
vordersten Theile der Achsel etwas auflieget, und jene Seite, auf
welcher das (E) oder die kleinste Seyte ist, unter das Kinn k\" ommt:
dadurch die Violin, auch bey der st\" arkesten Bewegung der hinauf und
herab gehenden Hand an seinem Orte allezeit unverr\" uckt bleibet.
Mozart, Leopold.  {\it Versuch einer gr\" undlichen Violinschule,}
(Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotter, 1756), p.53.  Translation: Knocker,
Editha, {\it A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing}
(London: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.54-55.}}
.end;
Like Geminiani he warns that the violin,
\quote
{g$\ldots$ must be held neither too high nor too low g$\ldots$ The scroll of the violin
is then held on the level of the mouth or, at the highest, level with
the eyes; but it must not be allowed to sink lower than the level of
the chest.\footnote{Erstens, muss die Geige nicht zu hoch aber auch nicht
zu nieder gehalten werden g$\ldots$ Man halte demnach die Schnecke der Violin
dem Mund, oder h\" ochstens den Augen gleich:  man lasse sie aber auch
nicht tiefer sinken, als so, dass die Schnecke der Brust gleich komme.
Mozart, {\it Versuch}, p.55. Knocker, {\it A Treatise}, p.58.}}

L'Abb\'e le fils' instructions are a bit confusing;
\quote
The violin should be set on the clavicle in such a manner that 
the chin is to the side of the fourth string.  It is necessary to 
lower the side of the chanterelle [E string] a bit.\footnote{Le Violon doit 
\A etre pos\'e sur la Clavicule, de fa,con que le Menton se trouve du 
c\A ot\'e de la quatri\`eme Cord, il faut abaisser un peu le c\A ot\'e de la 
Chanterelle.  L'Abb\'e le fils [Joseph Barnabe Saint-Sevin], 
{\it Principes du Violon} (Paris: Leclerc, 1761), p.1.}}

Boyden points out that a violin held in this manner would certainly 
slide away from  the player unless it was secured by the chin.\footnote{Boyden,
{\it History}, p.369.}

In the matter of the left hand, the theorist-musicians are in
agreement that it should not grip the neck of the violin too 
forcefully since that would tend to stiffen the fingers and the wrist.

Falck states that one should hold the violin 
\quote
{between the thumb
and palm of the forefinger; hold it almost encircling
but not too fast, so that one can play notes with the hand in the
high register and can also come back.\footnote{Dass er die Viol zwischen
dem lincken Daumen und Ballen dess vorderen Fingers/gleichsam eingeschlossen
halte/jedoch nicht zu vest/damit er mit der Hand im Fall der Noth in die
H\" ohe/dann auch wiederum zuruck fahren k\" onne.  Falck, {\it Idea}, p.190.}}
Furthermore, 
\quote
{Both arms should not be against the body but rather free from it so 
they can move sometimes over, sometimes under and will be able to act
lightly with agility. \footnote{Dass er die beyden Aerme ja nicht an den 
Leib/sondern/um sich bald \" uber=bald unter sich bewegen/und leicht
agiren zu k\" onnen/frey von dem Leib halte.  Falck, {\it Idea}, p. 190.}}

Prelleur gives simple instructions, 
\quote
{hold the violin with your left hand about half an inch from the
bottom of its Head which is usually termed the Nut, and let it be 
between the Root of your thumb and that of your fore-finger g$\ldots$
\footnote{Prelleur, Peter, {\it The Modern Music Master}, (London: the {\bf Printing-Office}
in Bow Church-Yard,1731), p.2.}}

Crome's instructions agree, ``Take the Fiddle and hold it in your
Left Hand let the Neck lie between your fore Finger and Thumb g$\ldots$ '' \footnote{Crome,
{\it The Fiddle}, p.34.}

The above three descriptions seem to suggest that the neck of the
violin may have rested in the hollow between the thumb and the
index finger.

Mozart, however, refutes this, saying that the neck should be
\quote
{g$\ldots$ held in such a manner between thumb and index finger that it
rests on one side on the ball at the base of the index-finger, and on
the other side against the upper part of the thumb joint, but in no way
touching the skin which joins the thumb and index-finger together.
The thumb must not project too far over the finger-board, for otherwise
it would hinder the player and rob the G string of its tone.  The lower 
part of the hand (namely, where it joins the arm) must remain free,
and the violin must not lie on it, for in so doing the nerves which
connect the arm and fingers would be pressed together and so contracted,
and the third and fourth fingers prevented from stretching.  We see
daily examples of such clumsy players, who find everything difficult
because they restrict themselves by an awkward position of the violin
and the bow. \footnote{Der Griff, oder vielmehr der Hals der Violin muss nicht
gleich einem Br\" ugel in die ganze Hand hineingeleget, sondern zwischen
den Daumen und Zeigefinger, an der andern Seite an dem obern Theile des
Daumenglieds anstehe, die Haut aber, welche in der Fuge der Hand den
Daumen und Zeigefinger zusammen h\" anget, keinesweges ber\" uhre. Der Daume
muss nicht zu viel \" uber das Griffblat hervorragen: sonst hindert er im
Spielen, und benimmt der G Seyte den Klang.  Der hintere Theil der Hand
aber (n\" amlich gegen dem Arm) muss frey bleiben, und die Violin muss nicht
darauf liegen: denn hierdurch w\" urden die Nerven, welche den Arm und die
Finger zusammen verbinden, an einander ger\" ucket, dadurch gesperret, und
folglich der vierte oder kleine Finger sich auszustrecken Gehinderet.  Wir
sehen t\" aglich die Exempel hiervon an solchen plumpen Spielern, bey denen
alles schwerm\" uthig l\" asst: weil sie die Violin und den Bogen so ungeschickt
halten, dass sie sich selbst dadurch einschr\" anken. Mozart, {\it Versuch}, p.54.}}

L'Abb\'e le fils is also quite explicit in his directions,
\quote
{The neck should be held without force between the thumb and the first 
joint (phalange) of the index finger.  The part of the neck closest to the
thumb should be placed on the fleshy protrusion (eminence) of its first
joint.  One must make sure that he places the thumb opposite the A-natural
of the bourdon [G string].\footnote{g$\ldots$le Manche doit \A etre tenu sans trop force
entre le pouce et la premi\`ere phalange du doigt ⊗⊗Index⊗, la partie du manche
qui se trouve en de,ca du Pouce doit \A etre pos'ee sur l'\'eminence charn\" ue
de sa premi\`ere phalange; on doit observer de placer le pouce vis-\`a-vis ⊗⊗La⊗
naturel du Bourdon.  L'Abb\'e le fils, {\it Principes}, p.1.}}

\sect Left hand position on the fingerboard
There are varied descriptions of the position of the left hand
on the fingerboard of the violin.

Falck states,
\quote
{The application of the fingers should be such that the hand is hollow and 
the fingers curved at the joint close to the strings as if hovering.  
They should be pressed down in such a manner that the next string is not disturbed.
\footnote{Die ⊗⊗Applicati⊗on der Finger soll also geschehen/dass die Hand hol sey/und die
Finger nach ihren Gelaichen eingekr\" ummet/nahe \" uber den Saiten gleichsam schweben/
auch dergestalt dieselben niederdrucken/dass ja die n\" achste nicht zugleich mit
ber\" uhret werde.  Falck, {\it Idea}, p.190.}}

Monteclaire's instructions are similar.
\quote
{It is necessary that the elbow be directly
under the violin and that the wrist be well curved and the fingers bent
and rounded in order that they may be set on the strings on their tips;
avoiding, however, fingering with the nails. \footnote{Il faut que le Coude soit
directement sous le Violon, que le poignet soit bien ployez en arondissant,
afin qu'ils se posent sur les cordes par leur extremit\'e en evitant neanmoins
de les toucher avec les ongles.  Monteclaire, {\it Methode Facile}, p.2.}}
He also includes a 
drawing of the fingerboard and indicates the locations of various notes.

Pierre Dupont contains no verbal description of the positioning of the 
left hand, but does include an extremely singular engraving of a
hand placed on the fingerboard of a violin.(fig.12)  The hand is shown in 
two different ``positions''.  These positions, as mentioned before, are merely 
variations of modern day first position, with the fingers poised over the e string 
above
the notes F5, G5, A5 and B#b5, in one case, and above F##5, G##5, A##6, and B5 
in the other.
In both illustrations, the thumb is pointing awkwardly back towards the scroll.\footnote{
Dupont, Pierre, {\it Principes du Violon}, (chez l'auteur, Paris, 1718), p.1,2.}

Corrette describes the left hand as follows;  
\quote
{It is necessary to
take the neck of the violin in the left hand, hold it with the thumb
and the first finger without squeezing the hand, round the first
second, and third fingers, and hold the little one a little bit
more elongated.\footnote{Il faut prendre le Manche du Violon de la main gauche, 
le tenir avec le pouce et le premier doigt sans trop serrer la main,
arrondir le premier, deuxieme, troisieme doigt, et tenir le petit plus
allong\'e.  Corrette, {\it L'\'Ecole D'Orph\'ee}, p.7.}}

Prelleur and Mozart have nothing to add to what has already been 
included in the previous section on holding the violin.

Geminiani, on the other hand, gives a detailed description of what
he considers the perfect left hand position;
\quote
{g$\ldots$place the first Finger on the first String upon F; the second Finger
on the second String upon C; the third Finger on the third String upon G; 
and the fourth Finger on the fourth String upon D.  This must be done 
without raising any of the Fingers, till all four have been set down; but
after that, they are to be raised but a little Distance from the
String they touched; and by so doing the position is perfect.\footnote{
Geminiani, {\it The Art}, p.1.}}

L'Abb\'e le fils, who is usually more specific, states merely that the
hand ``should be pretty close to the elevation of the neck [the scroll?]''
However, he does add that ``one must observe that he places the thumb
opposite the A-natural of the bourdon [G string]''.\footnote{``on doit observer
de placer le pouce vis-\`a-vis le ⊗⊗La⊗ naturel du Bourdon.''  L'Abb\'e
le fils, {it Principes}, p.1.}

There is, of course, concern among the instructors that the notes be
stopped in tune, but the suggestions for achieving this goal are sadly
lacking in their tutors.  The only practical directions come from
Prelleur and Geminiani who recommend marking the correct distances on
the fingerboard.  Both their methods include charts of violin finger
boards with intervals measured off. Prelleur even instructs the student to adjust
his bridge by moving it ``a little forwarder or backwarder'', so that the
distance from the scroll to the bridge matches that in the tutor.
Prelleur's fingerboard diagram is especially intriguing, as it places
enharmonic notes (such as B#b and A##) at different locations (for
example, the B#b is put higher than the A##).\footnote{An interesting study of
Prelleur's fingerboard was done by David Boyden (see his article, 
``Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation '', {it The Journal of the    
American Musicological Society}, Fall, 1951, p.202-219)
In this study, Boyden discovers that the notes marked by Prelleur
measure off intervals which closely approximate those of the just
intonation system.}

Leopold Mozart demonstrates a bit of musical snobbery by scoffing at
the practice of marking or fretting the fingerboard: 
\quote
{If a
pupil has a good musical ear, one must not avail oneself of such an
extravagance.  If, however, he lacks this, he is useless for music
and it were better he took a wood axe than a violin in his hand.\footnote{
Hat der Sch\" uler ein gutes musikalisches Geh\" or;  so darf man sich
nicht solcher Auschweisungen bedienen;  fehlet es ihm aber an diesem, 
so ist er zur Musik untauglich, und er wird besser eine Holzart als die
Violin zur Hand nehmen.  Mozart, {it Versuch}, p.58. Translation: Knocker,
{it A Treatise}, p.62.}}

The amount of information on shifting varies.

Mersenne describes which fingers stop which notes, but gives no directions
on the positioning of the hand.  He merely states,
\quote
{g$\ldots$It is necessary so to adjust the fingers on each place of the
fingerboard so that the tones endure a proportion as well regulated
as if there were frets as on the viol.\footnote{il faut tellement aiuster
les doigts sur chaque lieu du manche, que les sons persuadent une
proportion aussi bien regl\'ee que s'il y avoit des touches comme \`a
la Viole.  Mersenne, {it Harmonie Universelle}, p. 183.  Translation: Chapman, 
``The Books on Instruments'', p.241.}}
He mentions the extension of the fourth finger,
\quote
{If one advances it [the fourth finger] closer to the bridge than
the position of B mi, it makes the C sol ut fa, and then the D
la re sol.  Thus, the violin has a range of a nineteenth.\footnote{Si on
l'avance plus pres du chevalet que le lieu du {it mi}, il fait le
C {it sol ut fa}, et puis le D {it la re sol};  de maniere que le Violon
\`a l'estendu:e d'une Dixneufiesme.  Mersenne, {it Harmonie}, p.182.
Translation:  Chapman, ``The Books on Instruments'', p.182.}}

Falck and Prelleur seem to present position playing only as a theory.
Falck instructs,
\quote
{When in a musical piece notes occur above the fifth on the string, 
[which is] higher than 
can ordinarily be reached with four fingers, one must edge up the hand
and instead of the third finger, put the forefinger on the a:  to go
over d to f or g one must edge up the hand further and put the forefinger
on the d.\footnote{Wann in einem ⊗⊗Musical⊗ischen St\" uck ⊗⊗Not⊗en/welche auf der
⊗⊗Quint⊗-Saiten h\" oher/als mans mit denen Vier Fingern ⊗⊗ordinari\`e⊗
erreichen kan/gesetzt seynd/so muss man die Hand hinein rucken/und an statt
dess Dritten Fingers/den vorderen auf das a setzen: Solten aber sich ⊗⊗Not⊗en
finden/die \" uber das d/biss etwas in den vorderen Finger auf das d setzen.
Falck, {it Idea}, p.190.}}

Prelleur describes the fourth finger extension, but also includes on his
fingerboard chart notes up to A6.  He has his own names for these shifts;
\quote
{Ye first shift which is called the half shift is upon the 5\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
line [=modern day 2\raise 3 pt\hbox{nd} position];  the whole shift is upon ye 
8\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
line [=modern 3\raise 3 pt\hbox{rd} position]; 
ye double shift is on ye 17\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} line 
[=modern 7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} position];
the last shift is upon ye 20\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
line [=modern 8\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} position]; note that in
shifting you must put your first finger on that line or Note where ye shift
is to be done, and then move the whole hand higher accordingly.\footnote{Prelleur,
{it The Art}, p.4.}}

Both authors have described extremely high positions - the modern 
7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} position 
in Falck's case, and 8\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
in Prelleur's.  The musical examples in the two
methods, however, tell a different story.  Falck never leaves first
position, and Prelleur never goes higher than C##6.

Monteclaire has no verbal descriptions of shifting.  He includes a diagram
of a violin fingerboard with locations of notes plus fingerings up to high
C6 on the E string.  This is fingered #4 (probably signifying a fourth 
finger extension).

Dupont contains no information other than a very tedious verbal description
of the notes each finger is able to play in his two ``positions'' (shown in the
engravings).  He includes a statement on the extension of the fourth finger
almost as an afterthought in his exercise section.  The master, when asked
by the student how one reaches C6 on the E string explains:
\quote
{It is necessary to extend 
the little finger downward the distance which is marked from the B to the C 
on the fingerboard of the violin.\footnote{Il faut descendre le petit doit de la
distance qui est marqu\'ee depuis le si jusqu'a l'ut sur le manche du 
Violon.  Dupont, {it Principes}, p.4.}}

Corrette's treatise, which is for the more advanced student includes actual
position playing, 
\quote
{Thus, to ascend to c above the chanterell [e string]
it is necessary to place the first finger on the g; and to go to d, the
first finger on the a; The same observation for the other positions.\footnote{
Ainsi pour monter \`a l'ut dessus la Chanterelle il faut mettre le premiere
doigt sur le sol et pour aller au R\'e le premier doigt sur le La.  La m\A eme
observation pour les autres positions. Corrette, {it L'\'Ecole}, p.37.}}
These instructions are included in the second part of the tutor (``How to play in
the Italian style'').  Musical examples take the student all the way up to the
seventh position.

Geminiani introduces the different positions in an exercise which ``shews
the different Ways of stopping the same note, and discovers at the same Time 
that Transposition of the Hand [i.e. shifting] consists in passing from one Order
to another.'' (As he explained earlier, ``an order is a certain Number of
Notes which are to be played without transposing the Hand.''  They correspond to 
modern day positions.  For example, the second order=second position, the third
order=third position, etc.) His exercises take the student up to the seventh 
order, and are meticulously thorough, covering all possible fingerering 
combinations in the shifts.  On shifting up he instructs,
\quote
{g$\ldots$Care is to be taken that the Thumb always remain farther back than the 
Fore-finger; and the more you advance in the other Orders the Thumb must be at
a greater Distance till it remains almost hid under the Neck of the Violin.}
In another exercise, Geminiani writes out scales using numerous ``transpositions
of the Hand'' ascending and descending, and makes a rather intriguing statement.
about downshifting.
\quote
{It must here be observed, that in drawing back the Hand from the 
5\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}, 4\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}, and 3\raise 3 pt\hbox{rd}
Order to go to the first, the Thumb cannot, for Want of Time, be
replaced in its natural Position;  but it is necessary it should be replaced 
at the second Note.\footnote{Geminiani, {it The Art of Playing the Violin}, p.2-3.}}
This could, perhaps, be used to refute the crawling shift
of Sol Babitz in which he shifts downward first with the thumb, following 
with other fingers.

Tartini, surprisingly enough, includes some information on shifting in the 
Italian edition of his {it Trait\'e}.  He suggests that multiple shifts be done
between staccato notes rather than legato so as not to interrupt the smoothness
of the line.
\quote
{As regards to changing position, it is impossible to give any hard and
fast rules.  The student should adopt whatever method he finds most comfortable
in each case, and he should therefore practice the hand shifts in every
possible way so that he is prepared for every situation that may ariseg$\ldots$
if the hand has to be shifted several times during a passage, it should be
done between the staccato notes, not the legato, in order that no gaps are
heard in the latter case.\footnote{Nello smanicare non deve tenersi regola stabile,
ma bisogna adattarsi a quello, che nell'occasioni riesce piu comodo, onde si
deve fare lo studio dismanicare in tutti li modi per esser sempre pronto ad ogni
caso possa accadere.}}

In his letter to Maddelena Lombardini he describes the different shifts;
the half shift with the first finger on G, the whole shift with the first
finger on A, the double shift with the first finger on B, and the fourth
position with the first finger on C (all this on the E string).  The names
of the shifts correspond to present day 2\raise 3 pt\hbox{nd}, 3\raise 3 pt\hbox{rd},
4\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}and 5\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} positions 
respectively.  This seems to be the limit, for he advises,
\quote
{making C with the first finger upon the first string; and indeed,
this is a scale in which, when you are firm, you may be said to be
mistress of the fingerboard.\footnote{Assicurata passi alla quarta col primo in 
Csolfaut sul cantino;  e in somma questa \`e una Scala di smanicature, di
cui quando ella se ne sia fatta padrona, pu`o dire di esser padrona del
manico. Tartini, {it Lettera}.  Translation, Jacobi, {it Letter}, p.137.}}

Tartini's names for the shifts are the same 
as those of Prelleur, but they do not refer to the same positions.

Mozart's treatment of shifting is disappointingly perfunctory.  He
explains reasons for position playing - 1. necessity (eg. notes many 
leger lines above the staff) 2. convenience (to play great leaps)
3. Elegance (cantabile notes occurring closely together can often
be played easily on one string).  Mozart describes 3 positions, whole
position (=modern 3\raise 3 pt\hbox{rd}
position), half position (=modern 2\raise 3 pt\hbox{nd} position),
and compound position (a mixture of the first two).  He gives two options 
for getting into whole position on the E string - shifting to A5 
with the first finger, or to B5 with the second finger. If the musical
passage requires a higher shift, the violinist again is given a choice.
He can ascend using the fingering 1, 2, 1, 2, etc. or 2, 3, 2, 3, etc.
His musical examples take the student up to the 7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th}
position (A6).

L'Abb\'e le fils introduces position playing with fingered two octave
scales up to E6.  His labelling of the positions is rather singular, for
his ``first position'' corresponds to the modern day ``second position''.
He also includes a fingered G## minor scale thus introducing the modern
day ``half position'' (he does not label this scale as being in any position).
He also describes the extension as advancing or drawing back the finger
indicated by figures ``without moving the hand or any finger other than
the one being used''.\footnote{``g$\ldots$il faut avancer, ou reculer le Doigt qui est d\'esign\'e
par le Chiffre, sans d\'eplacer la main, ni aucun autre Doigt que celui dont
on doit se servir''.}  He has interesting instructions on sneaking into 
positions,
\quote
{Sometimes it is necessary to shift the other fingers immediately after
the extension, in which case, the extension is marked to make the change
of position less noticeable.\footnote{Quelquefois il faut d\'eplacer les autres Doigts
imm\'ediatement apr\`es l'Extension, dans ce cas, l'Extension n'est marqu\'ee,
que pour rendre moins sensible le Changement de Position.  L'Abb\'e le fils,
{it Principes}, p.18.}}
Later in the tutor, his ``roulades'' take the student up to modern day equivalent
of 7\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} position.

\sect Summary -- Holding the Bow
There is much interesting information in the treatises concerning the
holding of the bow - especially on the differences between the French
thumb-under-hair and Italian thumb-on-stick grip.

Georg Muffat, in his {it Florilegium secundum} (a 1698 collection of French style
dances) comments: 
\quote
The majority of German violinists and other players of upper string
instruments hold the bow as the French [Lullists] do, pressing the hair with
the thumb and resting the other fingers on the stick of the bowg$\ldots$.The Italians,
among others, differ in playing these upper instruments in that they never touch
the hairg$\ldots$\footnote{In Angreiffung dess Bogens kommen die meisten Teutschen in den
kleinen und mittern Geigen mit den Lullisten \" uber eins, indeme sie die Haare
mit dem Daumen andrucken, und die andere Finger auff dess Bogens Rucken legen.
Muffat, Georg, {it Florilegium Secundum}, (apud Authorem, Typis G. A. H\" oller: 
1698), p.21.}}

Falck implies a French grip of the bow,
\quote
{Above all, one must learn to correctly hold and support the bow in
such a manner that the right thumb squeezes the hair near the frogg$\ldots$
Then, one must grasp and hold the wood of the bow between the two
foremost joints of the fingerg$\ldots$\footnote{Vor allen Dingen muss er den Bogen recht
fassen und halten lernen/solcher massen/dass der rechte Daum die Haar n\" achst 
bey dem H\" arpflein etwas eindruckeg$\ldots$dernach muss er das Holz 
dess Bogens zwischen die zwey vordere Gelaich der Finger fassen und halteng$\ldots$
Falck, {it Idea}, p.190-191.}}

Monteclaire describes a French grip in his tutor: 
\quote
{The bow is held in the left hand the four fingers placed on the wood,
and the thumb under the frog which supports the hair.\footnote{L'Archet se 
tient de la main droite les quatre doits posez sur le bois et le pouce dessous
la hausse qui \'el\`eve le crin.  Monteclaire, {it M\'ethode}, p.3.}}

A comment by Roger North, an 18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} century writer on music is revealing.
In his praise of Italian violinist Nicola Matteis he states, ``He taught
ye English to hold ye bow by ye wood only & not to touch ye hair which
was no small reformation.''\footnote{Roger North, {it The Musicall Grammarian},(1728),
edited by Hilda Andrews, London [1925], p.35-36.}

Corrette, whose treatise gives instructions on playing in the French and 
Italian styles also includes fairly detailed descriptions of the French
and Italian bow grips.  He even includes a picture of a bow (fig.13):
.skip 7;
\quote
{The Italians hold the bow at three quarters [of its length], putting the 
four fingers at letter A and the thumb underneath at B; and the French
hold it at the side of the frog, putting the first, second, and third finger
above the wood at CDE, the thumb underneath the hair F and the small finger
at the side of the bowstick at G.  These two ways of holding the bow are 
equally good, depending on the master who teaches.  The eighths and
sixteenths are played at the end of the bow at HJ.\footnote{Les Italians le tiennent
aux trois quarts en mettant quatre doigts sur le bois, A, et le pouce dessous,
B, et les Fran,cois le tiennent du c\A ot\'e de la hausse, en mettant le premier,
deuxieme et troisieme doigt dessus le bois, C, D, E, le pouce dessous le crin
F, et le petit doigt acost\'e du bois, G.  Ces deux fa,cons de tenir l'Archet
sont \'egalement bonne cela d\`epend du Ma\A itre qui enseigne.  Corrette,
{it L'\'Ecole
D'Orph\'ee}, p.7.  Translation from  Boyden, {it The History of the Violin}, p.371.}}
The plate at the beginning of the tutor depicts a violinist using the French bow
grip.(fig.8)

Geminiani simply instructs,
\quote
{The bow is to be held at a small Distance from the Nut, between the Thumb
and Fingers, the Hair being turned inward against the Back or Outside of the
Thumb, in which Position it is to be held free and easy, and not stiff.
\footnote{Geminiani, {it The Art}, p.2.}}
The violinist of his frontispiece is using an Italian grip with the thumb between
the stick and the hair, and the rest of the fingers resting on the stick at the
first joint.(fig.9)

Tartini is also quite brief, ``The bow should be held firmly between the
thumb and forefinger and lightly by the other three fingers in order to
produce a strong sustained tone.''\footnote{``L'Arco v\`a tenuto con forza ne'primi
due dita, e gl'altri tre leggieri per cavar voce di polsog$\ldots$''
Tartini, Giuseppe, {it Regole per arrivare
a saper ben suonar il Violino col vero fondamento di saper sicuramente
tutto quello che si fa;} copiate da Giovanni Francesco Nicolai, p.3.  
Translation by Erwin Jacobi in his edition of Tartini's {it Trait\'e
des Agr\'ements}, p.57.}

Mozart gives the most extensive and detailed instructions further elucidated
by illustrations.(figs.10,11,14)
\quote
{The bow is taken in the right hand, at its lowest extremity, between the
thumb and the middle joint of the index-finger, or even a little behind it.
 g$\ldots$The little finger must lie at all times on the bow and never be held freely
away from the stick, for it contributes greatly to the control of the bow and
therefore to the necessary strength and weakness by means of pressing or relaxing.
 g$\ldots$The first, namely the index finger, must, however not be stretched too far over
the bow or too far from the others.  One may, at times, hold the bow with the first
or second joint of the index-finger, but the stretching out of the index-finger is
at all times a serious error.  For in that way the hand stiffens because the nerves
are taut, and the bowing  becomes laboured and clumsy;  yea, right awkward, as it
must then be performed by the whole arm.\footnote{Der Bogen wird an seinem untersten
Theile in die rechte Hand zwischen den Daumen und zwischen, oder auch ein wenig
hinter das mittlere Glied des Zeigefingers genommen. g$\ldots$Der kleine Finger soll 
allezeit auf dem Bogen liegen bleiben, und niemal vom Bogen weg frey hinaus 
gehalten werden: weil derselbe zur M\" assigung des Bogens, folglich zur n\" othigen
St\" arke und schw\" ache durch das Nachdr\" ucken oder Nachlassen sehr vieles beytr\" agt.
 g$\ldots$Man muss aber auch den ersten, n\" amlich den Zeigefinger nicht zu sehr auf dem
Bogen austrecken, und von den \" ubrigen entfernen.  Man mag alsdann den Bogen mit
dem ersten oder zweyten Gliede des Zeigefingers halten; so ist die Austreckung 
des Zeigefingers allezeit ein Hauptfehler.  Denn
dadurch wird die Hand steif: weil die Nerven angespannet sind.  Und der Bogenstrich
wird schwerm\" uthig, plump, ja recht ungeschickt: da er mit dem ganzen Arme gemacht
wird.  Mozart, {it Versuch}, p.54-55.  Translation, Knocker, {it A Treatise}, p.58}}
The plate shows a grip much more akin to the one modern violinists use, with the
stick firmly grasped between the thumb and the middle finger.  The index and ring
fingers are draped over the bow at the second joint, and the little finger rests
on the stick.
By the time L'Abb\'e le fils publishes his method, the French bow grip
seems to have gone out of use;
\quote
{It is necessary to place the tip of the little finger on the part of the bow 
which holds the frog.  The index [finger] should be positioned in such a way
that the bow is in the middle of the second joint of this finger which, in
order to have more force should be a bit removed from the others.  The thumb
should be opposite the middle finger and sustain all the weight of the bow.
In placing the bow on the strings the rod should not be perpendicular to the
hair but it should tilt a bit toward the side of the fingerboard.\footnote{Il faut
poser le bout du petit doigt sur la partie de l'Archet qui tient \`a la Hausse;
l'Index doit \A etre plac\'e de fa,con que l'Archet se trouve au milieu de la
seconde phalange de ce doigt, lequel, pour avoir plus de force, doit \A etre un
peu \'eloign\'e des autres.  Le pouce doit \A etre vis-\`a-vis le doigt du milieu,
et so\A utenir tout le poids de l'Archet: en posant l'Archet sur les Cordes, la
baguette ne doit pas se trouver perpendiculairement au dessus du Crin, mais elle
doit pancher un peu du c\A ot\'e de la Touche.  L'Abb\'e le fils, {\it Principes},
p.1.}}

\sect Bowing
Instructions on bowing are often amusing, particularly in the elementary 
tutors.

Mersenne suggests  ``g$\ldots$the hand which holds the bow ought to be at least 
equal in speed to the leftg$\ldots$''\footnote{``g$\ldots$la main qui tient l'archet doit estre
du moins esgale en vistesse \`a la gaucheg$\ldots$''  Mersenne, {\it Harmonie} p.183.
Translation, Chapman, {\it The Books on Instruments}, p. 241.}

Falck's observations seem a bit obvious,
\quote
{The stroke lasts the note's value long, satisfying and even on the
strings, not too close to the bridge, but also not too far from it.
\footnote{die Striche nach der ⊗⊗Not⊗en ⊗⊗Valor⊗ und Geltung fein lang/satt und
gleich auf den Saiten/nicht zu nahe am Steeg/auch nicht zu ferne davon
f\" uhren}}
He suggests playing coloratura passages and quick runs at the tip where the
bow is light.\footnote{``die ⊗⊗Coloratur⊗en und geschwinde L\" aufflein vornen/wo der
Bogen leicht ist/machen und streichen.''  Falck, {\it Idea}, p.191.}
He also gives some elementary bowing rules (downbow at beginnings of measures
except after a rest and for groups of odd numbers of notes)

Muffat states: 
\quote
{g$\ldots$all the finest masters, regardless of their nationality agree with
each other that the longer, steadier, sweeter, and more even the bow
stroke is, the finer it is considered;\footnote{De plus quoyque tous les meilleurs
ma\A itres de quelle nation qu'ils soient, tiennent d'un commun consentement,
que plus le trait est long, ferme, egal, et doux, plus il est a estimerg$\ldots$
Muffat, {\it Florilegium Secundum}, p.45.}}
His treatise is, of course, most well known for its instruction on the bowing
of French dances - the tyrannical ``rule of the downbow'', designed to coordinate
the bow strokes of large groups of string players.

Prelleur gives no instructions on holding the bow or on the bow stroke.
He merely includes a section (very similar to that of Falck) on various
common bowings.
Monteclaire adds his plea to that of Mersenne stating,
\quote
{It is necessary to coordinate well the two hands together in order that the 
bow does not go more quickly or more slowly than the fingers of the left hand,
for it is this which comprises the beauty and difficulty of the violin\footnote{Il
faut bien acorder les deux mains ensemble afin que l'Archet n'aille ni plus
v\A ite ni plus lentement que les doits de la main gauche, car c'est en cela
que consiste la dificult\'e et la beaut'e du Violon.  Monteclaire, {\it M\'ethode},
p.3.}}

Crome states that the bow is ``of the utmost consequence because it is in a
manner the Tongue of the Instrument, and pronounces every thing we play.''
He emphasizes the importance of practice in perfecting the bow motion since
``using the Bow regularly will make the Arm Nimble''.  He relates that Corelli
would allow his students to do little else but draw the bow over the 
instrument for 3 or 4 months.\footnote{Crome, {\it The Fiddle}, pp.47-48.}

Corrette instructs:
\quote
{To draw the sound of the violin it is necessary to pull and
push with large strokes of the bow, but in a gracious and agreeable
mannerg$\ldots$.In sarabandes, largos, and other pieces of taste, it is
necessary to play whole notes, half notes,and quarter notes with large 
strokes of the bow
and swell the sounds at the end.  But for the ends of songs it is
necessary to begin the bow strokes with sweetness, strengthen it at 
the middle, and finish, dying.\footnote{Pour tirer du son du Violon, il
faut tirer et pousser de grands coups d'Archet, mais d'une maniere
gracieuse et agr\'eableg$\ldots$.Dans les sarabandes, Adagio, Largo; et autres
Pieces de go\A ut, il faut faire les Rondes, Blanches, et Noires avec de
grands Coups d'Archet et enfler les sons sur la fin. Mais pour les
finalles et terminaisons de chants, il faut commencer le coup d'Archet
avec douceur le fortifier au milieu et le finir en mourant.  Corrette,
{\it L'\'Ecole}, pp.7, 34.}}

Geminiani gives a detailed description of the bowing motion:
\quote
{The Motion is to proceed from the Joints of the Wrist and Elbow in playing quick
Notes, and very little or not at all from the Joint of the Shoulder; but in playing
long Notes, where the Bow is drawn from one End of it to the other, the Joint of the
Shoulder is also a little employed.  The Bow must always be drawn parallel with the
Bridge, (which can't be done if it is held stiff) and must be pressed upon the 
Strings with the Fore-finger only, and not with the whole Weight of the Hand.  The
best Performers are least sparing of their Bow; and make Use of the whole of it,
from the Point to that Part of it under, and even beyond their Fingers.  In an upbow
the Hand is bent a little downward from the Joint of the Wrist, when the Nut of the
Bow approaches the Strings, and the Wrist is immediately streightned, or the Hand
rather a little bent back or upward, as soon as the Bow is began to be drawn down
again.}
He has much to say on the importance of bowing in beautiful sound production.
\quote
{One of the principal Beauties of the Violin is the swelling or encreasing and
softening the Sound; which is done by pressing the Bow upon the Strings with the
Fore-finger more or less.  In playing all long Notes the Sound should be begun
soft, and gradually swelled till the Middle, and from thence gradually softened
till the End.  And lastly, particular Care must be taken to draw the Bow smooth
from one End to the other without any Interruption or stopping in the Middle.  For
on this principally, and the keeping it always parallel with the Bridge, and 
pressing it only with the Fore-finger upon the Strings with Discretion, depends the
fine Tone of the Instrument.\footnote{Geminiani, {\it The Art}, p.2.}}
He also cautions:
\quote
{The Bow must always be drawn strait on the Strings, and never be raised from them in
playing Semi-quaversg$\ldots$

Before I conclude the Article of Bowing, I must caution the Learno␈π7w≠Qβ7∂∪/';8h+S#*αS'7*β←'SBβ#'M∧∪?]mε3?IβN1β#∃ε{;∂∃ε∂∂W∨#?7MεC'7O.c→βSzβ'Q1εC∃β←Nc1β#∂∪∪3eε+[↔Ih+3↔∂3∃β'"β?≠→r↓απ;"β'QβFMβ¬εk?OQε#'Oπ?∪↔↔π⊗c∃α↔63↔∂Qbβπ;⊃ε3K↔G.+;S3Jβ∪↔O'∪?gMπ##∀4T#↔O'>qβ?→π##∃α≡{7C?≡+I:s6{?S;␈#↔n'⊗K⊃91π↓9e;wp4*#O→α↔c∞kC3↔~β↔c↔⊗≠'O∃π##∃βεcπg↔∩β'9β6K'?/→β∂?n∪';π&K?;Mε{→β␈;';∨~aβπ;"β#∃β/C#?K'_4+SF)βOS.#↔;Qπ#=βC⊗∂S'≡)β?>K;≥β/C↔K∂O≠↔Mβ6KKOQε{;3eε{9β?ε+9βO'∪';∨~↓"↔c/∪∂'O*4*bDJY%βεβ'9β␈∪∪↔Iεs?Qβ&yβ∂?v3?W; h+S#*α↔c↔∨+S'?rβ?→β&C∃α≠Ns∨↔K~β←'SBβS#π"β?→β&C∃α␈9≥≥↓jβπ9β.≠#=β}1α7↔↔≠↔;;(h+π;"α7?;&+∂3πO∪∃9↓∧K9β?v)α↔c∞kC3∃bβ#∃β≡C?←Mε#↔≠'∞s∂∃β}1βS#*α≠K↔v≠!β∪␈;;?:βKW3*↓4+↔Iβ';∨#KW∂&K;≥β&C∃βO'+∪↔;"βS=β∞cS↔KvS∃β⊗{←';?→βββ&/';:α∂πK*β;?Qπ#=β≠}c3?\hSS#π"β←K↔&≠#↔⊃¬∪W3∃ε{→β∪⊗←';:βS#∃∧∪?]β&{←9β∂!βS#*β≠'K∨!α;?&)β?→ε+[↔KJαπIr9≤4*f3??Sv{S↔nN∪'⊃9bβA9Qwp4(4P27?VKQβ&/↔Mε∪?←'v9β[π⊗K↔Seε;⊃β≡{;SK}aβ?→π#?;∃πβK?∪.≠S'?rβ?;∃π≠S↔@hS≠WK&C↔Iβ&Cπ9β∞seβ?&C↔Iβ'+S?Ir↓α←#/∪↔πMπ##∃β'∪↔πSO≠↔Mβ}1α∂?↔∪↔SS*aα∨↔nK;'πvI1βπv 4*1<∃εc∃β≠NcMβ∪/≠∂K'⊗)β¬βn+OO¬ε#%β[}≠∃βSOβ∃β?2βO?Wv!↓#←.-βπ"βS#∃ε+cSK.k↔L4V{→βSF)β?:βπ;⊃π≠SK?v9β'9π##∃βnK∪∪3*IβπMε∪↔';:βS#∃εK∪↔πbaα7?VKQβπ∪?C?≡+L4+Nqβπ∪&KS'?raβCK∞≠S'∂Ns≥β␈;';∨~β←#'≡Aβ∂K.S∃β&C∃β↔63↔∂S~β?→β
βOSK}s≥βO␈+;⊂4W#πC↔⊗K;≥β&yβ←↔∞Y↓#≠N99EUJaβ←↔∞Yβ∨K␈;';≥π≠SK?v9↓#≠N99EYJaβπ;"β¬β←.-7O'∪?;≥o;↔π-o≠SK?v84+O␈+;⊃β>KS#'rβ?;∃π≠SK?↑)↓#≠N99E]J↓5βπfaβ?→π##↔O*βCKπ∨#'O↔"β?9β⊗{S!β&C∃βWε∪?]β∞s⊃βSF(4+∪␈;;?:q↓α#*βπ3OzβK↔∂}k7↔;'→βCK∞≠S'∂Ns≥βSF)βCK}#W∂SN{9β?2β¬βO␈+;⊃β>C'∂ hS'Mβε+K≠↔∨#3eβ/3↔9β7∪?5β}s∃β↔v!β?→π##∃β⊗{]βSzβS#∃ε{S#↔∩↓#¬β⊗{]β∪.3g';:βπ∂Q`h+∨'6+9βSF)βK↔≡K3'↔w!βOC⊗K;∨'v+OMβ}1β'S~βπ∂SN{9βK/≠W3SNs≥β≠⊗{5β''→β∂?w3↔aβ≡{;OS↔+∂S'}q%84Tk?kπ↔!βO↔/→βS#*β7πO&+Keβ}1βS#*β?]εMβ↔∨≠↔;SN1β'rβS#∃πβK?C/⊃β↔c.≠WS'}qβ?_hSπ9α∞#π∨'zβC'↔≡):s≠}{S;?&+n7?VKQ1πZs'Q¬3↔KO.≠#y1π↓9EA∩iEAUwp4*#*β∂?;≡K∪↔K~β?←Ns≥β'oβ?KS∞sQβ↔v{W∨!π#=β∪/3?S∃β)β∂#∂βS↔K_h+S=π##∃β∨++↔∨!84(hP2Sπ↔#';%ε≠?[↔↔→β[π⊗K?WMεOC↔∨#Mβ?2β?←Ns≥9↓∧K9βS}s∃βC⊗{∪W∂&K?84UcGW?&(4+n&yβ∪K∂9β¬β⊗+πWSN3W1β&{;∃β7∪?5β&C∃β'w≠SKWn+;Q1πβ3π∂*βS#∃ε∪?]β}qβS#*βOSKNs∨L4V;↔;SgIβπQε3'KO"βπ;⊃π##↔9εK;∂K.O∃β&C∃βC⊗+OOW⊗)9↓αN1βS#*β≠W3bβCK↔∨≠WK∃εKL4+∂βC3'.!β'7n+∪'π&+3e1ε	β#π↔≠!1β≡≠KπCNs≥βO␈+;⊃β>K31β⊗+OW3"rs≠?␈#;?S/ZC↔Iε≠π[π⊗(4+∪∞c1≡'∨#K?7.sS=β↔+?;¬π3?∂∃ε∪'O?>q≥βππβ?∨∨NK∃βb:πK∂zβ∂?9ε#↔3'≡S↔kV	βCKNk¬04V)βC?Jβ∂π3≡Iβ3zaβπ3'∪'7↔w#%βππβ?∨∨N;∪?fyβOW⊗KS=β≡{9β≠␈∪k¬β≡Iβ∂π6K↔⊗)β[?≡)β∂K.#∧4+∨#K'∪}c¬9↓¬#πKSNs%1β]c'Qα⊗+∨?3/q1βAs⊃;{xhRO'∨vK≠'∂∞sS3ebβ#∃β>K[↔Mεs=βK.c↔Mβ6{Iβ.;';;Ns≥β¬πβπOO∞;∃β←O#!βπrβWC␈9β?Iε	β∪?>s?]b4+/!βOW>;↔OS~βCKπ∨#'∂'v94+∞c1βC∂≠Oπ∨/→β?&Aβ←πO→βS=εK;∂K.O∃β6∂'3O#eβ←O#!βSF)β?:q↓↓"F)β∪?/→1β#␈;↔[↔∩`4+3∂#↔Iβ∨+∨∨↔∨!β?>K;∨Mε3?Iβ≡{7∃β≡KSWπ&K?;MJrs≠?␈#;?S/[βα'w#?K;zβπ31<K∂=εs=β[Jαsβ∃π∪↔∨?fλ4+∪/#↔K7NsπS¬ε#↔1β≡{7';≡KπK∃εa≡πK≡S¬βNqβ∨&fβUβ=εK9βNfβU1β∞sk%β⊗KO?∨v	β↔O/∪∂'S∂∪O$4VK9βS/#S%βfIβCπ∨≠%βC/⊃β∪KO#S=1ε)βC↔∩βK?[/≠∂'=bβC↔Iε+OO↔⊗)β≠K∞s∂#%ε#↔31<K∂<hS∂?9εc¬βO&+OO¬πβK?;&+kk¬π#π;Szβ'9β>KβU1ε≠?7∃εK9βOπ)m≥≥ααSπK&K;%1πZs'Q¬∪↔∨?f+y1βαqI;xhP4*1<
q>)β3∃ε3'3MεK;∂3.#↔Mβ6'K3Jβ↔cS.sO'[*β';O'∪W∂SN{;MhhRsGW␈#∀4+]##∃β⊗{]βOF{W3⊃ε∪∃β∪⊗←9β>KS!β6KK7;/≠Mβ←O##?W"aβ#?>+[↔IbβOS'63↔;'v9βS#*β≠';>+KM9α4*?rβS#∃ε≠?;S⊗Ke1ε31β&C↔'IεS?';'→βO#␈+3⊃β⊗)β[↔↔Iβ≠K.)m↓βNqβ?≡+K['v9βS#O→1βSF(4+≠Ns∨↔K~β←'3bβ7π/*β;πS/∪π33Jβ'7C/∪∂↔C&K3∃εk?[↔n+;SMπ;#'∂Bβ∂?;'∪'W&)β7W≡AβS<hSS#∃ε∪↔πW'Iβ?→π##∃β≡{W;∪~q↓αSF)β←KO≠Qβ7/≠Qβπg≠=β*β[↔KJβ≠K↔*qα'Qπ≠#?Wf!β∨WN#∃βSF(4+␈9βOS⊗'∨#"βπ;⊃ε#'K↔∨!β'Qε{[↔Iπ##∃β2k#?3/→β?→π##∃β6K?3'rq↓αSF)β≠?⊗+πK5π≠#?Wf!4+}s3eβ∞≠Qβπv!β≠?fc?]β&C∃β←⊗KOQβNqβπ3bβS#∃ε{C↔K∂#'?;~q↓αSF)βπKjaβCK␈β↔K3JβOC↔∞[';≥`h+O#␈+3⊃β}s3eβNK↔3⊃εK9βSF)β∂π⊗+Mβ←F+9β?v)βWO/→βS#*β?]ε3K?5ε∪↔∨'vs';≥π#=β↔v!m↓β&C∀4+.c?]π≠#?Wf!βπ3>gMβ⊗)βπ←∂Iβ≠K}iβS#*β?∪Jp4(04*}s∃β∂∞qβ∂πfaβS#*β?]εβαS#*αO?Wbβ?→β&C∃α'w≠SKWn+;Q≥:β←#'≡Aβ'Qπ#?W∂F+M1β≡K;∂∃εKP4+≡+K[↔~βS=β>K[∃β/CCK↔∨≠'?9π#=βSF)βO?.s∪M1π#=βOεK9βSF+5β?/!1βSzβO←↔faβS#.i1βπv 4+Szβ∪'7Ns'O!π##↔5ph(4*&yβOCNqβ?W"β¬βO␈+;⊃βO→βS=π≠WOS∞K9β'"β≠?Iε	β∂↔↔#π'9¬[π7?.sQβ?5iβS'n)βS#⊗{W∨ hSS#∃π≠π7∃ε#↔∨K.)β?→ε3?K∂*p4(4U#=βO>+31β∞s⊃β∪Nk';'≡AβS#*βOπ7*βO?Wv!β'QεKMβ;.≠↔OO∂∪eβSzβOSπ↔!β≠↔.∪3e1π≠←↔3`h+eε#↔∨K.+MβSzβS#∃πβ?';"β←#↔rβ'Qβ7+33eε+cC3}#↔M1π##↔9π≠?≠S.qβ'QεK9β¬π≠'7'fH4+n;;↔∩βeβ&+∨K↔/→β'9π≠W∂!ε	β≠π≡C'?9π##πQεKQβ≠Ns'O#/→β'7ε+K∂↔π#'3Jrs≠?␈#;?S/Z1≡π⊗≠#↔PhS∪?'"αr¬β/#K∃β&+;Uβ∂3↔
β6+K7↔%a∨∃1π≠π;Mε≠↔C↔v#π;Qπ∪?'∪O⊃β3↔~β∪?'?#M1β&{WS↔~β3↔W↔_4++}K;SW⊗+Mβ∪}K[↔;"αr¬β/#K∃β∂)β∂?w#Kπ'⊗)β≠?↔!β3'↔∪↔M1ε+9β?↔≠↔K[∞sQβ∂.c¬1βf+Mβ∪}K∨SLhS≠↔K}sQβ;∂#WK↔fc↔7↔w!β∪↔~β7?W6+7↔;~β'7C/∪∂↔C&K3↔~βGW%ε≠?;S⊗KW↔⊗{;Qβ⊗+πW∂␈+Aαsελ4+3
β↔π/"q∨∃ε#↔Mβ≡{;Miαβ3∃αε{'∨;/!β∪?O!βπW∨≠%αr
β↔SK*βSJq>+Mβ3N∪Jq∨*aβ'1ε#?'Qε≠?;∪.KK∀4Va≡πK≡C↔Qβ'∪?'Qbβ↔Qβf)β∪'⊗K∨↔Iπ#?W+␈+KMβ∨+Iβ3/→XZ␈+'↔L2β∪Uα6K?3?rqα1∨∂3π;Qn∪KπLhS∪?'"βO↔Wf+7↔;"βπ∨'∩aβ↔Qπ≠W'[⊗)β3∃¬β?'∨v+Qβ∪∞sMβS␈+S↔Mπ≠↔Mβ␈αq∨↔⊗S'?w→1β3*βKπ_h+CK␈βK↔7.sQβ∪O!1β;*β∪?'"βO∃βπ∩r¬β/#↔Iβ∂+∃β∪∞sMβ3/→β∂π~aβ>sπ)β1∨}qβ↔7εc?g∃εa≡πK≡C↔P4V!∨W9ε∪?WQmcβ¬7b;πWS⊗)m↓βf)α∂?.#∃βO}KQβS␈++?W↔→αr¬ε+SK∃ε"q∨↔&∂"q>)β∪U∧≠?KC~p4(4T{9βC/+Qβππβ↔33/⊃β1≡∂∪∂#↔"aX[b:π7∃ε#%β1<K;OS↔+7↔;!1βGU>K1βS␈+∂#∃bβCW'~βGU∨N`4+O/∪Qαsε	β∪?vs↔Iβb;↔cC⊗+OO'}qβπWBβO?;~aαsβ
β3↔Mε3'3↔∩aαsβ
β3↔Mε+;≠3/⊃1β↔"αsβ¬εc↔L4V#'7'w+↔I9h(4*6K3↔Iπ+9βO}q1β
>+OQβf)βO>d	βWS.s'Iβ.qβ∂↔↔#π'9π#↔7MεUβ6d	β↔7*β∩q∨.;Jq∨*β∪∃β6{K∂∃ph(4*ε{WIβ.s≠3↔∩β↔Qβ&K7';.+Iβ3*β6r¬ε+7∃β≡{91βNaβ≠π/!β3∃ε≠?77.s∂↔Iε3?'f+7↔;"aβ1∨.s≠3↔⊂h+Cπ∩β∩q∨.;Jq∨*aβ+W∨U≡sε	β∂∃πU∨'bαq∨↔≡cπS∃πβ3↔'v+7↔;"aβ↔Qε+;OWO#∃β1>∪∪?.≠'Iβ&(4+6d	β↔7*βCπIε"q∨↔?∩q∨∃bβ∪∃β6	3∂?rβGU∨Naβ≠'vKOO∃εK;O↔w≠'3.k↔;Qr↓α1≡∞∪
q∨*β3∃β6K3M0hSns'"αCK'v≠'C↔∨q1βAs	;{xhP4*s≡+∂Qα≡{;∂3/≠'?8hRS#∃εCπ;∪fK;≥β}1βS#*β['?fK9βπv!β?:βO#?>+⊃β∪.3';'&)βSK.s∪Mβ&CK?W>@4+SF)β3π&)↓E↑g∪π'O*↓MβC%c#?G[S#yε;⊃β.K3eβ	bsK∞KO∃↓~βCRsF∪?co&Cyβ∂.sSWKN(
≠js corresponding to the demands of more
advanced technique.  This progression is evidenced in the treatises of that period.

The need for stability in virtuosic passages showed the advantages of positioning
the instrument by supporting it not on the chest, but on the shoulder where 
it could be further steadied by the chin.

This same need demonstrated the superiority of the Italian bow grip over
the French in controlling the action and sound production.
There has been much discussion among modern scholars as to the
handling of the baroque violin bow and the type of sound it would have produced.
David Boyden has pointed out that if the natural inclinations of the convex bow
were followed, the result would be a more detached bowing and the
messa di voce sound production described in many of the treatises.  Mozart's tutor,
with its emphasis on dynamic tone control within a single bow stroke shows that
his main concern was that the player exercise complete control over the bow, not
allowing these natural tendencies to dictate the sound production.  

A further blow for independence from tyrannical dication of bow technique
is made by such virtuosi as Geminiani and Tartini in their rejection of the
rule of the downbow.

The expansion of the range of the violin through shifting showed a gradual
merging of theory and practice as the treatises went from description to
actual use of the technique in exercises and pieces.  These exercises and
pieces are themselves the most eloquent demonstration of the technical advances.
They progress from simple dance tunes entirely in the first position to 
complicated works involving ornamented passages, often with multiple stops,
exploiting the extreme reaches of the fingerboard.

As we will see, even these demanding works did not approach the virtuosity of
the performances of the foremost violinists of the early 18\raise 3 pt\hbox{th} century.